util/concurrent/ForkJoinPool.java

/*
 * Written by Doug Lea with assistance from members of JCP JSR-166
 * Expert Group and released to the public domain, as explained at
 * http://creativecommons.org/licenses/publicdomain
 */

package java.util.concurrent;

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Arrays;
import java.util.Collection;
import java.util.Collections;
import java.util.List;
import java.util.concurrent.locks.LockSupport;
import java.util.concurrent.locks.ReentrantLock;
import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
import java.util.concurrent.CountDownLatch;

/**
 * An {@link ExecutorService} for running {@link ForkJoinTask}s.
 * A {@code ForkJoinPool} provides the entry point for submissions
 * from non-{@code ForkJoinTask} clients, as well as management and
 * monitoring operations.
 *
 * <p>A {@code ForkJoinPool} differs from other kinds of {@link
 * ExecutorService} mainly by virtue of employing
 * <em>work-stealing</em>: all threads in the pool attempt to find and
 * execute subtasks created by other active tasks (eventually blocking
 * waiting for work if none exist). This enables efficient processing
 * when most tasks spawn other subtasks (as do most {@code
 * ForkJoinTask}s). When setting <em>asyncMode</em> to true in
 * constructors, {@code ForkJoinPool}s may also be appropriate for use
 * with event-style tasks that are never joined.
 *
 * <p>A {@code ForkJoinPool} is constructed with a given target
 * parallelism level; by default, equal to the number of available
 * processors. The pool attempts to maintain enough active (or
 * available) threads by dynamically adding, suspending, or resuming
 * internal worker threads, even if some tasks are stalled waiting to
 * join others. However, no such adjustments are guaranteed in the
 * face of blocked IO or other unmanaged synchronization. The nested
 * {@link ManagedBlocker} interface enables extension of the kinds of
 * synchronization accommodated.
 *
 * <p>In addition to execution and lifecycle control methods, this
 * class provides status check methods (for example
 * {@link #getStealCount}) that are intended to aid in developing,
 * tuning, and monitoring fork/join applications. Also, method
 * {@link #toString} returns indications of pool state in a
 * convenient form for informal monitoring.
 *
 * <p> As is the case with other ExecutorServices, there are three
 * main task execution methods summarized in the following
 * table. These are designed to be used by clients not already engaged
 * in fork/join computations in the current pool.  The main forms of
 * these methods accept instances of {@code ForkJoinTask}, but
 * overloaded forms also allow mixed execution of plain {@code
 * Runnable}- or {@code Callable}- based activities as well.  However,
 * tasks that are already executing in a pool should normally
 * <em>NOT</em> use these pool execution methods, but instead use the
 * within-computation forms listed in the table.
 *
 * <table BORDER CELLPADDING=3 CELLSPACING=1>
 *  <tr>
 *    <td></td>
 *    <td ALIGN=CENTER> <b>Call from non-fork/join clients</b></td>
 *    <td ALIGN=CENTER> <b>Call from within fork/join computations</b></td>
 *  </tr>
 *  <tr>
 *    <td> <b>Arange async execution</td>
 *    <td> {@link #execute(ForkJoinTask)}</td>
 *    <td> {@link ForkJoinTask#fork}</td>
 *  </tr>
 *  <tr>
 *    <td> <b>Await and obtain result</td>
 *    <td> {@link #invoke(ForkJoinTask)}</td>
 *    <td> {@link ForkJoinTask#invoke}</td>
 *  </tr>
 *  <tr>
 *    <td> <b>Arrange exec and obtain Future</td>
 *    <td> {@link #submit(ForkJoinTask)}</td>
 *    <td> {@link ForkJoinTask#fork} (ForkJoinTasks <em>are</em> Futures)</td>
 *  </tr>
 * </table>
 *
 * <p><b>Sample Usage.</b> Normally a single {@code ForkJoinPool} is
 * used for all parallel task execution in a program or subsystem.
 * Otherwise, use would not usually outweigh the construction and
 * bookkeeping overhead of creating a large set of threads. For
 * example, a common pool could be used for the {@code SortTasks}
 * illustrated in {@link RecursiveAction}. Because {@code
 * ForkJoinPool} uses threads in {@linkplain java.lang.Thread#isDaemon
 * daemon} mode, there is typically no need to explicitly {@link
 * #shutdown} such a pool upon program exit.
 *
 * <pre>
 * static final ForkJoinPool mainPool = new ForkJoinPool();
 * ...
 * public void sort(long[] array) {
 *   mainPool.invoke(new SortTask(array, 0, array.length));
 * }
 * </pre>
 *
 * <p><b>Implementation notes</b>: This implementation restricts the
 * maximum number of running threads to 32767. Attempts to create
 * pools with greater than the maximum number result in
 * {@code IllegalArgumentException}.
 *
 * <p>This implementation rejects submitted tasks (that is, by throwing
 * {@link RejectedExecutionException}) only when the pool is shut down
 * or internal resources have been exhausted.
 *
 * @since 1.7
 * @author Doug Lea
 */
public class ForkJoinPool extends AbstractExecutorService {

    /*
     * Implementation Overview
     *
     * This class provides the central bookkeeping and control for a
     * set of worker threads: Submissions from non-FJ threads enter
     * into a submission queue. Workers take these tasks and typically
     * split them into subtasks that may be stolen by other workers.
     * The main work-stealing mechanics implemented in class
     * ForkJoinWorkerThread give first priority to processing tasks
     * from their own queues (LIFO or FIFO, depending on mode), then
     * to randomized FIFO steals of tasks in other worker queues, and
     * lastly to new submissions. These mechanics do not consider
     * affinities, loads, cache localities, etc, so rarely provide the
     * best possible performance on a given machine, but portably
     * provide good throughput by averaging over these factors.
     * (Further, even if we did try to use such information, we do not
     * usually have a basis for exploiting it. For example, some sets
     * of tasks profit from cache affinities, but others are harmed by
     * cache pollution effects.)
     *
     * Beyond work-stealing support and essential bookkeeping, the
     * main responsibility of this framework is to take actions when
     * one worker is waiting to join a task stolen (or always held by)
     * another.  Becauae we are multiplexing many tasks on to a pool
     * of workers, we can't just let them block (as in Thread.join).
     * We also cannot just reassign the joiner's run-time stack with
     * another and replace it later, which would be a form of
     * "continuation", that even if possible is not necessarily a good
     * idea. Given that the creation costs of most threads on most
     * systems mainly surrounds setting up runtime stacks, thread
     * creation and switching is usually not much more expensive than
     * stack creation and switching, and is more flexible). Instead we
     * combine two tactics:
     *
     *   Helping: Arranging for the joiner to execute some task that it
     *      would be running if the steal had not occurred.  Method
     *      ForkJoinWorkerThread.helpJoinTask tracks joining->stealing
     *      links to try to find such a task.
     *
     *   Compensating: Unless there are already enough live threads,
     *      method helpMaintainParallelism() may create or or
     *      re-activate a spare thread to compensate for blocked
     *      joiners until they unblock.
     *
     * Because the determining existence of conservatively safe
     * helping targets, the availability of already-created spares,
     * and the apparent need to create new spares are all racy and
     * require heuristic guidance, we rely on multiple retries of
     * each. Further, because it is impossible to keep exactly the
     * target (parallelism) number of threads running at any given
     * time, we allow compensation during joins to fail, and enlist
     * all other threads to help out whenever they are not otherwise
     * occupied (i.e., mainly in method preStep).
     *
     * The ManagedBlocker extension API can't use helping so relies
     * only on compensation in method awaitBlocker.
     *
     * The main throughput advantages of work-stealing stem from
     * decentralized control -- workers mostly steal tasks from each
     * other. We do not want to negate this by creating bottlenecks
     * implementing other management responsibilities. So we use a
     * collection of techniques that avoid, reduce, or cope well with
     * contention. These entail several instances of bit-packing into
     * CASable fields to maintain only the minimally required
     * atomicity. To enable such packing, we restrict maximum
     * parallelism to (1<<15)-1 (enabling twice this (to accommodate
     * unbalanced increments and decrements) to fit into a 16 bit
     * field, which is far in excess of normal operating range.  Even
     * though updates to some of these bookkeeping fields do sometimes
     * contend with each other, they don't normally cache-contend with
     * updates to others enough to warrant memory padding or
     * isolation. So they are all held as fields of ForkJoinPool
     * objects.  The main capabilities are as follows:
     *
     * 1. Creating and removing workers. Workers are recorded in the
     * "workers" array. This is an array as opposed to some other data
     * structure to support index-based random steals by workers.
     * Updates to the array recording new workers and unrecording
     * terminated ones are protected from each other by a lock
     * (workerLock) but the array is otherwise concurrently readable,
     * and accessed directly by workers. To simplify index-based
     * operations, the array size is always a power of two, and all
     * readers must tolerate null slots. Currently, all worker thread
     * creation is on-demand, triggered by task submissions,
     * replacement of terminated workers, and/or compensation for
     * blocked workers. However, all other support code is set up to
     * work with other policies.
     *
     * To ensure that we do not hold on to worker references that
     * would prevent GC, ALL accesses to workers are via indices into
     * the workers array (which is one source of some of the unusual
     * code constructions here). In essence, the workers array serves
     * as a WeakReference mechanism. Thus for example the event queue
     * stores worker indices, not worker references. Access to the
     * workers in associated methods (for example releaseEventWaiters)
     * must both index-check and null-check the IDs. All such accesses
     * ignore bad IDs by returning out early from what they are doing,
     * since this can only be associated with shutdown, in which case
     * it is OK to give up. On termination, we just clobber these
     * data structures without trying to use them.
     *
     * 2. Bookkeeping for dynamically adding and removing workers. We
     * aim to approximately maintain the given level of parallelism.
     * When some workers are known to be blocked (on joins or via
     * ManagedBlocker), we may create or resume others to take their
     * place until they unblock (see below). Implementing this
     * requires counts of the number of "running" threads (i.e., those
     * that are neither blocked nor artifically suspended) as well as
     * the total number.  These two values are packed into one field,
     * "workerCounts" because we need accurate snapshots when deciding
     * to create, resume or suspend.  Note however that the
     * correspondance of these counts to reality is not guaranteed. In
     * particular updates for unblocked threads may lag until they
     * actually wake up.
     *
     * 3. Maintaining global run state. The run state of the pool
     * consists of a runLevel (SHUTDOWN, TERMINATING, etc) similar to
     * those in other Executor implementations, as well as a count of
     * "active" workers -- those that are, or soon will be, or
     * recently were executing tasks. The runLevel and active count
     * are packed together in order to correctly trigger shutdown and
     * termination. Without care, active counts can be subject to very
     * high contention.  We substantially reduce this contention by
     * relaxing update rules.  A worker must claim active status
     * prospectively, by activating if it sees that a submitted or
     * stealable task exists (it may find after activating that the
     * task no longer exists). It stays active while processing this
     * task (if it exists) and any other local subtasks it produces,
     * until it cannot find any other tasks. It then tries
     * inactivating (see method preStep), but upon update contention
     * instead scans for more tasks, later retrying inactivation if it
     * doesn't find any.
     *
     * 4. Managing idle workers waiting for tasks. We cannot let
     * workers spin indefinitely scanning for tasks when none are
     * available. On the other hand, we must quickly prod them into
     * action when new tasks are submitted or generated.  We
     * park/unpark these idle workers using an event-count scheme.
     * Field eventCount is incremented upon events that may enable
     * workers that previously could not find a task to now find one:
     * Submission of a new task to the pool, or another worker pushing
     * a task onto a previously empty queue.  (We also use this
     * mechanism for termination actions that require wakeups of idle
     * workers).  Each worker maintains its last known event count,
     * and blocks when a scan for work did not find a task AND its
     * lastEventCount matches the current eventCount. Waiting idle
     * workers are recorded in a variant of Treiber stack headed by
     * field eventWaiters which, when nonzero, encodes the thread
     * index and count awaited for by the worker thread most recently
     * calling eventSync. This thread in turn has a record (field
     * nextEventWaiter) for the next waiting worker.  In addition to
     * allowing simpler decisions about need for wakeup, the event
     * count bits in eventWaiters serve the role of tags to avoid ABA
     * errors in Treiber stacks.  To reduce delays in task diffusion,
     * workers not otherwise occupied may invoke method
     * releaseEventWaiters, that removes and signals (unparks) workers
     * not waiting on current count. To reduce stalls, To minimize
     * task production stalls associate with signalling, any worker
     * pushing a task on an empty queue invokes the weaker method
     * signalWork, that only releases idle workers until it detects
     * interference by other threads trying to release, and lets them
     * take over.  The net effect is a tree-like diffusion of signals,
     * where released threads (and possibly others) help with unparks.
     * To further reduce contention effects a bit, failed CASes to
     * increment field eventCount are tolerated without retries.
     * Conceptually they are merged into the same event, which is OK
     * when their only purpose is to enable workers to scan for work.
     *
     * 5. Managing suspension of extra workers. When a worker is about
     * to block waiting for a join (or via ManagedBlockers), we may
     * create a new thread to maintain parallelism level, or at least
     * avoid starvation. Usually, extra threads are needed for only
     * very short periods, yet join dependencies are such that we
     * sometimes need them in bursts. Rather than create new threads
     * each time this happens, we suspend no-longer-needed extra ones
     * as "spares". For most purposes, we don't distinguish "extra"
     * spare threads from normal "core" threads: On each call to
     * preStep (the only point at which we can do this) a worker
     * checks to see if there are now too many running workers, and if
     * so, suspends itself.  Method helpMaintainParallelism looks for
     * suspended threads to resume before considering creating a new
     * replacement. The spares themselves are encoded on another
     * variant of a Treiber Stack, headed at field "spareWaiters".
     * Note that the use of spares is intrinsically racy.  One thread
     * may become a spare at about the same time as another is
     * needlessly being created. We counteract this and related slop
     * in part by requiring resumed spares to immediately recheck (in
     * preStep) to see whether they they should re-suspend.  To avoid
     * long-term build-up of spares, the oldest spare (see
     * ForkJoinWorkerThread.suspendAsSpare) occasionally wakes up if
     * not signalled and calls tryTrimSpare, which uses two different
     * thresholds: Always killing if the number of spares is greater
     * that 25% of total, and killing others only at a slower rate
     * (UNUSED_SPARE_TRIM_RATE_NANOS).
     *
     * 6. Deciding when to create new workers. The main dynamic
     * control in this class is deciding when to create extra threads
     * in method helpMaintainParallelism. We would like to keep
     * exactly #parallelism threads running, which is an impossble
     * task. We always need to create one when the number of running
     * threads would become zero and all workers are busy. Beyond
     * this, we must rely on heuristics that work well in the the
     * presence of transients phenomena such as GC stalls, dynamic
     * compilation, and wake-up lags. These transients are extremely
     * common -- we are normally trying to fully saturate the CPUs on
     * a machine, so almost any activity other than running tasks
     * impedes accuracy. Our main defense is to allow some slack in
     * creation thresholds, using rules that reflect the fact that the
     * more threads we have running, the more likely that we are
     * underestimating the number running threads. The rules also
     * better cope with the fact that some of the methods in this
     * class tend to never become compiled (but are interpreted), so
     * some components of the entire set of controls might execute 100
     * times faster than others. And similarly for cases where the
     * apparent lack of work is just due to GC stalls and other
     * transient system activity.
     *
     * Beware that there is a lot of representation-level coupling
     * among classes ForkJoinPool, ForkJoinWorkerThread, and
     * ForkJoinTask.  For example, direct access to "workers" array by
     * workers, and direct access to ForkJoinTask.status by both
     * ForkJoinPool and ForkJoinWorkerThread.  There is little point
     * trying to reduce this, since any associated future changes in
     * representations will need to be accompanied by algorithmic
     * changes anyway.
     *
     * Style notes: There are lots of inline assignments (of form
     * "while ((local = field) != 0)") which are usually the simplest
     * way to ensure the required read orderings (which are sometimes
     * critical). Also several occurrences of the unusual "do {}
     * while(!cas...)" which is the simplest way to force an update of
     * a CAS'ed variable. There are also other coding oddities that
     * help some methods perform reasonably even when interpreted (not
     * compiled), at the expense of some messy constructions that
     * reduce byte code counts.
     *
     * The order of declarations in this file is: (1) statics (2)
     * fields (along with constants used when unpacking some of them)
     * (3) internal control methods (4) callbacks and other support
     * for ForkJoinTask and ForkJoinWorkerThread classes, (5) exported
     * methods (plus a few little helpers).
     */

    /**
     * Factory for creating new {@link ForkJoinWorkerThread}s.
     * A {@code ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory} must be defined and used
     * for {@code ForkJoinWorkerThread} subclasses that extend base
     * functionality or initialize threads with different contexts.
     */
    public static interface ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory {
        /**
         * Returns a new worker thread operating in the given pool.
         *
         * @param pool the pool this thread works in
         * @throws NullPointerException if the pool is null
         */
        public ForkJoinWorkerThread newThread(ForkJoinPool pool);
    }

    /**
     * Default ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory implementation; creates a
     * new ForkJoinWorkerThread.
     */
    static class DefaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory
        implements ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory {
        public ForkJoinWorkerThread newThread(ForkJoinPool pool) {
            return new ForkJoinWorkerThread(pool);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Creates a new ForkJoinWorkerThread. This factory is used unless
     * overridden in ForkJoinPool constructors.
     */
    public static final ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory
        defaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory =
        new DefaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory();

    /**
     * Permission required for callers of methods that may start or
     * kill threads.
     */
    private static final RuntimePermission modifyThreadPermission =
        new RuntimePermission("modifyThread");

    /**
     * If there is a security manager, makes sure caller has
     * permission to modify threads.
     */
    private static void checkPermission() {
        SecurityManager security = System.getSecurityManager();
        if (security != null)
            security.checkPermission(modifyThreadPermission);
    }

    /**
     * Generator for assigning sequence numbers as pool names.
     */
    private static final AtomicInteger poolNumberGenerator =
        new AtomicInteger();

    /**
     * Absolute bound for parallelism level. Twice this number plus
     * one (i.e., 0xfff) must fit into a 16bit field to enable
     * word-packing for some counts and indices.
     */
    private static final int MAX_WORKERS   = 0x7fff;

    /**
     * Array holding all worker threads in the pool.  Array size must
     * be a power of two.  Updates and replacements are protected by
     * workerLock, but the array is always kept in a consistent enough
     * state to be randomly accessed without locking by workers
     * performing work-stealing, as well as other traversal-based
     * methods in this class. All readers must tolerate that some
     * array slots may be null.
     */
    volatile ForkJoinWorkerThread[] workers;

    /**
     * Queue for external submissions.
     */
    private final LinkedTransferQueue<ForkJoinTask<?>> submissionQueue;

    /**
     * Lock protecting updates to workers array.
     */
    private final ReentrantLock workerLock;

    /**
     * Latch released upon termination.
     */
    private final Phaser termination;

    /**
     * Creation factory for worker threads.
     */
    private final ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory factory;

    /**
     * Sum of per-thread steal counts, updated only when threads are
     * idle or terminating.
     */
    private volatile long stealCount;

    /**
     * The last nanoTime that a spare thread was trimmed
     */
    private volatile long trimTime;

    /**
     * The rate at which to trim unused spares
     */
    static final long UNUSED_SPARE_TRIM_RATE_NANOS =
        1000L * 1000L * 1000L; // 1 sec

    /**
     * Encoded record of top of treiber stack of threads waiting for
     * events. The top 32 bits contain the count being waited for. The
     * bottom 16 bits contains one plus the pool index of waiting
     * worker thread. (Bits 16-31 are unused.)
     */
    private volatile long eventWaiters;

    private static final int  EVENT_COUNT_SHIFT = 32;
    private static final long WAITER_ID_MASK    = (1L << 16) - 1L;

    /**
     * A counter for events that may wake up worker threads:
     *   - Submission of a new task to the pool
     *   - A worker pushing a task on an empty queue
     *   - termination
     */
    private volatile int eventCount;

    /**
     * Encoded record of top of treiber stack of spare threads waiting
     * for resumption. The top 16 bits contain an arbitrary count to
     * avoid ABA effects. The bottom 16bits contains one plus the pool
     * index of waiting worker thread.
     */
    private volatile int spareWaiters;

    private static final int SPARE_COUNT_SHIFT = 16;
    private static final int SPARE_ID_MASK     = (1 << 16) - 1;

    /**
     * Lifecycle control. The low word contains the number of workers
     * that are (probably) executing tasks. This value is atomically
     * incremented before a worker gets a task to run, and decremented
     * when worker has no tasks and cannot find any.  Bits 16-18
     * contain runLevel value. When all are zero, the pool is
     * running. Level transitions are monotonic (running -> shutdown
     * -> terminating -> terminated) so each transition adds a bit.
     * These are bundled together to ensure consistent read for
     * termination checks (i.e., that runLevel is at least SHUTDOWN
     * and active threads is zero).
     */
    private volatile int runState;

    // Note: The order among run level values matters.
    private static final int RUNLEVEL_SHIFT     = 16;
    private static final int SHUTDOWN           = 1 << RUNLEVEL_SHIFT;
    private static final int TERMINATING        = 1 << (RUNLEVEL_SHIFT + 1);
    private static final int TERMINATED         = 1 << (RUNLEVEL_SHIFT + 2);
    private static final int ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK  = (1 << RUNLEVEL_SHIFT) - 1;
    private static final int ONE_ACTIVE         = 1; // active update delta

    /**
     * Holds number of total (i.e., created and not yet terminated)
     * and running (i.e., not blocked on joins or other managed sync)
     * threads, packed together to ensure consistent snapshot when
     * making decisions about creating and suspending spare
     * threads. Updated only by CAS. Note that adding a new worker
     * requires incrementing both counts, since workers start off in
     * running state.
     */
    private volatile int workerCounts;

    private static final int TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT  = 16;
    private static final int RUNNING_COUNT_MASK = (1 << TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT) - 1;
    private static final int ONE_RUNNING        = 1;
    private static final int ONE_TOTAL          = 1 << TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT;

    /**
     * The target parallelism level.
     * Accessed directly by ForkJoinWorkerThreads.
     */
    final int parallelism;

    /**
     * True if use local fifo, not default lifo, for local polling
     * Read by, and replicated by ForkJoinWorkerThreads
     */
    final boolean locallyFifo;

    /**
     * The uncaught exception handler used when any worker abruptly
     * terminates.
     */
    private final Thread.UncaughtExceptionHandler ueh;

    /**
     * Pool number, just for assigning useful names to worker threads
     */
    private final int poolNumber;


    // Utilities for CASing fields. Note that several of these
    // are manually inlined by callers

    /**
     * Increments running count part of workerCounts
     */
    final void incrementRunningCount() {
        int c;
        do {} while (!UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                               c = workerCounts,
                                               c + ONE_RUNNING));
    }

    /**
     * Tries to decrement running count unless already zero
     */
    final boolean tryDecrementRunningCount() {
        int wc = workerCounts;
        if ((wc & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK) == 0)
            return false;
        return UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                        wc, wc - ONE_RUNNING);
    }

    /**
     * Forces decrement of encoded workerCounts, awaiting nonzero if
     * (rarely) necessary when other count updates lag.
     *
     * @param dr -- either zero or ONE_RUNNING
     * @param dt == either zero or ONE_TOTAL
     */
    private void decrementWorkerCounts(int dr, int dt) {
        for (;;) {
            int wc = workerCounts;
            if (wc == 0 && (runState & TERMINATED) != 0)
                return; // lagging termination on a backout
            if ((wc & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK)  - dr < 0 ||
                (wc >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT) - dt < 0)
                Thread.yield();
            if (UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                         wc, wc - (dr + dt)))
                return;
        }
    }

    /**
     * Increments event count
     */
    private void advanceEventCount() {
        int c;
        do {} while(!UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, eventCountOffset,
                                              c = eventCount, c+1));
    }

    /**
     * Tries incrementing active count; fails on contention.
     * Called by workers before executing tasks.
     *
     * @return true on success
     */
    final boolean tryIncrementActiveCount() {
        int c;
        return UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, runStateOffset,
                                        c = runState, c + ONE_ACTIVE);
    }

    /**
     * Tries decrementing active count; fails on contention.
     * Called when workers cannot find tasks to run.
     */
    final boolean tryDecrementActiveCount() {
        int c;
        return UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, runStateOffset,
                                        c = runState, c - ONE_ACTIVE);
    }

    /**
     * Advances to at least the given level. Returns true if not
     * already in at least the given level.
     */
    private boolean advanceRunLevel(int level) {
        for (;;) {
            int s = runState;
            if ((s & level) != 0)
                return false;
            if (UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, runStateOffset, s, s | level))
                return true;
        }
    }

    // workers array maintenance

    /**
     * Records and returns a workers array index for new worker.
     */
    private int recordWorker(ForkJoinWorkerThread w) {
        // Try using slot totalCount-1. If not available, scan and/or resize
        int k = (workerCounts >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT) - 1;
        final ReentrantLock lock = this.workerLock;
        lock.lock();
        try {
            ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws = workers;
            int n = ws.length;
            if (k < 0 || k >= n || ws[k] != null) {
                for (k = 0; k < n && ws[k] != null; ++k)
                    ;
                if (k == n)
                    ws = Arrays.copyOf(ws, n << 1);
            }
            ws[k] = w;
            workers = ws; // volatile array write ensures slot visibility
        } finally {
            lock.unlock();
        }
        return k;
    }

    /**
     * Nulls out record of worker in workers array
     */
    private void forgetWorker(ForkJoinWorkerThread w) {
        int idx = w.poolIndex;
        // Locking helps method recordWorker avoid unecessary expansion
        final ReentrantLock lock = this.workerLock;
        lock.lock();
        try {
            ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws = workers;
            if (idx >= 0 && idx < ws.length && ws[idx] == w) // verify
                ws[idx] = null;
        } finally {
            lock.unlock();
        }
    }

    // adding and removing workers

    /**
     * Tries to create and add new worker. Assumes that worker counts
     * are already updated to accommodate the worker, so adjusts on
     * failure.
     */
    private void addWorker() {
        ForkJoinWorkerThread w = null;
        try {
            w = factory.newThread(this);
        } finally { // Adjust on either null or exceptional factory return
            if (w == null) {
                decrementWorkerCounts(ONE_RUNNING, ONE_TOTAL);
                tryTerminate(false); // in case of failure during shutdown
            }
        }
        if (w != null)
            w.start(recordWorker(w), ueh);
    }

    /**
     * Final callback from terminating worker.  Removes record of
     * worker from array, and adjusts counts. If pool is shutting
     * down, tries to complete terminatation.
     *
     * @param w the worker
     */
    final void workerTerminated(ForkJoinWorkerThread w) {
        forgetWorker(w);
        decrementWorkerCounts(w.isTrimmed()? 0 : ONE_RUNNING, ONE_TOTAL);
        while (w.stealCount != 0) // collect final count
            tryAccumulateStealCount(w);
        tryTerminate(false);
    }

    // Waiting for and signalling events

    /**
     * Releases workers blocked on a count not equal to current count.
     * Normally called after precheck that eventWaiters isn't zero to
     * avoid wasted array checks.
     *
     * @param signalling true if caller is a signalling worker so can
     * exit upon (conservatively) detected contention by other threads
     * who will continue to release
     */
    private void releaseEventWaiters(boolean signalling) {
        ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws = workers;
        int n = ws.length;
        long h; // head of stack
        ForkJoinWorkerThread w; int id, ec;
        while ((id = ((int)((h = eventWaiters) & WAITER_ID_MASK)) - 1) >= 0 &&
               (int)(h >>> EVENT_COUNT_SHIFT) != (ec = eventCount) &&
               id < n && (w = ws[id]) != null) {
            if (UNSAFE.compareAndSwapLong(this, eventWaitersOffset,
                                          h, h = w.nextWaiter))
                LockSupport.unpark(w);
            if (signalling && (eventCount != ec || eventWaiters != h))
                break;
        }
    }

    /**
     * Tries to advance eventCount and releases waiters. Called only
     * from workers.
     */
    final void signalWork() {
        int c; // try to increment event count -- CAS failure OK
        UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, eventCountOffset, c = eventCount, c+1);
        if (eventWaiters != 0L)
            releaseEventWaiters(true);
    }

    /**
     * Blocks worker until terminating or event count
     * advances from last value held by worker
     *
     * @param w the calling worker thread
     */
    private void eventSync(ForkJoinWorkerThread w) {
        int wec = w.lastEventCount;
        long nh = (((long)wec) << EVENT_COUNT_SHIFT) | ((long)(w.poolIndex+1));
        long h;
        while ((runState < SHUTDOWN || !tryTerminate(false)) &&
               ((h = eventWaiters) == 0L ||
                (int)(h >>> EVENT_COUNT_SHIFT) == wec) &&
               eventCount == wec) {
            if (UNSAFE.compareAndSwapLong(this, eventWaitersOffset,
                                          w.nextWaiter = h, nh)) {
                while (runState < TERMINATING && eventCount == wec) {
                    if (!tryAccumulateStealCount(w))  // transfer while idle
                        continue;
                    Thread.interrupted();             // clear/ignore interrupt
                    if (eventCount != wec)
                        break;
                    LockSupport.park(w);
                }
                break;
            }
        }
        w.lastEventCount = eventCount;
    }

    // Maintaining spares

    /**
     * Pushes worker onto the spare stack
     */
    final void pushSpare(ForkJoinWorkerThread w) {
        int ns = (++w.spareCount << SPARE_COUNT_SHIFT) | (w.poolIndex+1);
        do {} while (!UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, spareWaitersOffset,
                                               w.nextSpare = spareWaiters,ns));
    }

    /**
     * Tries (once) to resume a spare if running count is less than
     * target parallelism. Fails on contention or stale workers.
     */
    private void tryResumeSpare() {
        int sw, id;
        ForkJoinWorkerThread w;
        ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws;
        if ((id = ((sw = spareWaiters) & SPARE_ID_MASK) - 1) >= 0 &&
            id < (ws = workers).length && (w = ws[id]) != null &&
            (workerCounts & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK) < parallelism &&
            eventWaiters == 0L &&
            spareWaiters == sw &&
            UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, spareWaitersOffset,
                                     sw, w.nextSpare) &&
            w.tryUnsuspend()) {
            int c; // try increment; if contended, finish after unpark
            boolean inc = UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                                   c = workerCounts,
                                                   c + ONE_RUNNING);
            LockSupport.unpark(w);
            if (!inc) {
                do {} while(!UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                                      c = workerCounts,
                                                      c + ONE_RUNNING));
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Callback from oldest spare occasionally waking up.  Tries
     * (once) to shutdown a spare if more than 25% spare overage, or
     * if UNUSED_SPARE_TRIM_RATE_NANOS have elapsed and there are at
     * least #parallelism running threads. Note that we don't need CAS
     * or locks here because the method is called only from the oldest
     * suspended spare occasionally waking (and even misfires are OK).
     *
     * @param now the wake up nanoTime of caller
     */
    final void tryTrimSpare(long now) {
        long lastTrim = trimTime;
        trimTime = now;
        helpMaintainParallelism(); // first, help wake up any needed spares
        int sw, id;
        ForkJoinWorkerThread w;
        ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws;
        int pc = parallelism;
        int wc = workerCounts;
        if ((wc & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK) >= pc &&
            (((wc >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT) - pc) > (pc >>> 2) + 1 ||// approx 25%
             now - lastTrim >= UNUSED_SPARE_TRIM_RATE_NANOS) &&
            (id = ((sw = spareWaiters) & SPARE_ID_MASK) - 1) >= 0 &&
            id < (ws = workers).length && (w = ws[id]) != null &&
            UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, spareWaitersOffset,
                                     sw, w.nextSpare))
            w.shutdown(false);
    }

    /**
     * Does at most one of:
     *
     * 1. Help wake up existing workers waiting for work via
     *    releaseEventWaiters. (If any exist, then it probably doesn't
     *    matter right now if under target parallelism level.)
     *
     * 2. If below parallelism level and a spare exists, try (once)
     *    to resume it via tryResumeSpare.
     *
     * 3. If neither of the above, tries (once) to add a new
     *    worker if either there are not enough total, or if all
     *    existing workers are busy, there are either no running
     *    workers or the deficit is at least twice the surplus.
     */
    private void helpMaintainParallelism() {
        // uglified to work better when not compiled
        int pc, wc, rc, tc, rs; long h;
        if ((h = eventWaiters) != 0L) {
            if ((int)(h >>> EVENT_COUNT_SHIFT) != eventCount)
                releaseEventWaiters(false); // avoid useless call
        }
        else if ((pc = parallelism) >
                 (rc = ((wc = workerCounts) & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK))) {
            if (spareWaiters != 0)
                tryResumeSpare();
            else if ((rs = runState) < TERMINATING &&
                     ((tc = wc >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT) < pc ||
                      (tc == (rs & ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK) && // all busy
                       (rc == 0 ||                       // must add
                        rc < pc - ((tc - pc) << 1)) &&   // within slack
                       tc < MAX_WORKERS && runState == rs)) && // recheck busy
                     workerCounts == wc &&
                     UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset, wc,
                                              wc + (ONE_RUNNING|ONE_TOTAL)))
                addWorker();
        }
    }

    /**
     * Callback from workers invoked upon each top-level action (i.e.,
     * stealing a task or taking a submission and running
     * it). Performs one or more of the following:
     *
     * 1. If the worker cannot find work (misses > 0), updates its
     *    active status to inactive and updates activeCount unless
     *    this is the first miss and there is contention, in which
     *    case it may try again (either in this or a subsequent
     *    call).
     *
     * 2. If there are at least 2 misses, awaits the next task event
     *    via eventSync
     *
     * 3. If there are too many running threads, suspends this worker
     *    (first forcing inactivation if necessary).  If it is not
     *    needed, it may be killed while suspended via
     *    tryTrimSpare. Otherwise, upon resume it rechecks to make
     *    sure that it is still needed.
     *
     * 4. Helps release and/or reactivate other workers via
     *    helpMaintainParallelism
     *
     * @param w the worker
     * @param misses the number of scans by caller failing to find work
     * (saturating at 2 just to avoid wraparound)
     */
    final void preStep(ForkJoinWorkerThread w, int misses) {
        boolean active = w.active;
        int pc = parallelism;
        for (;;) {
            int wc = workerCounts;
            int rc = wc & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK;
            if (active && (misses > 0 || rc > pc)) {
                int rs;                      // try inactivate
                if (UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, runStateOffset,
                                             rs = runState, rs - ONE_ACTIVE))
                    active = w.active = false;
                else if (misses > 1 || rc > pc ||
                         (rs & ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK) >= pc)
                    continue;                // force inactivate
            }
            if (misses > 1) {
                misses = 0;                  // don't re-sync
                eventSync(w);                // continue loop to recheck rc
            }
            else if (rc > pc) {
                if (workerCounts == wc &&   // try to suspend as spare
                    UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                             wc, wc - ONE_RUNNING) &&
                    !w.suspendAsSpare())    // false if killed
                    break;
            }
            else {
                if (rc < pc || eventWaiters != 0L)
                    helpMaintainParallelism();
                break;
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Helps and/or blocks awaiting join of the given task.
     * Alternates between helpJoinTask() and helpMaintainParallelism()
     * as many times as there is a deficit in running count (or longer
     * if running count would become zero), then blocks if task still
     * not done.
     *
     * @param joinMe the task to join
     */
    final void awaitJoin(ForkJoinTask<?> joinMe, ForkJoinWorkerThread worker) {
        int threshold = parallelism;         // descend blocking thresholds
        while (joinMe.status >= 0) {
            boolean block; int wc;
            worker.helpJoinTask(joinMe);
            if (joinMe.status < 0)
                break;
            if (((wc = workerCounts) & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK) <= threshold) {
                if (threshold > 0)
                    --threshold;
                else
                    advanceEventCount(); // force release
                block = false;
            }
            else
                block = UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                                 wc, wc - ONE_RUNNING);
            helpMaintainParallelism();
            if (block) {
                int c;
                joinMe.internalAwaitDone();
                do {} while (!UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt
                             (this, workerCountsOffset,
                              c = workerCounts, c + ONE_RUNNING));
                break;
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Same idea as awaitJoin, but no helping
     */
    final void awaitBlocker(ManagedBlocker blocker)
        throws InterruptedException {
        int threshold = parallelism;
        while (!blocker.isReleasable()) {
            boolean block; int wc;
            if (((wc = workerCounts) & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK) <= threshold) {
                if (threshold > 0)
                    --threshold;
                else
                    advanceEventCount();
                block = false;
            }
            else
                block = UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt(this, workerCountsOffset,
                                                 wc, wc - ONE_RUNNING);
            helpMaintainParallelism();
            if (block) {
                try {
                    do {} while (!blocker.isReleasable() && !blocker.block());
                } finally {
                    int c;
                    do {} while (!UNSAFE.compareAndSwapInt
                                 (this, workerCountsOffset,
                                  c = workerCounts, c + ONE_RUNNING));
                }
                break;
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Possibly initiates and/or completes termination.
     *
     * @param now if true, unconditionally terminate, else only
     * if shutdown and empty queue and no active workers
     * @return true if now terminating or terminated
     */
    private boolean tryTerminate(boolean now) {
        if (now)
            advanceRunLevel(SHUTDOWN); // ensure at least SHUTDOWN
        else if (runState < SHUTDOWN ||
                 !submissionQueue.isEmpty() ||
                 (runState & ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK) != 0)
            return false;

        if (advanceRunLevel(TERMINATING))
            startTerminating();

        // Finish now if all threads terminated; else in some subsequent call
        if ((workerCounts >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT) == 0) {
            advanceRunLevel(TERMINATED);
            termination.arrive();
        }
        return true;
    }

    /**
     * Actions on transition to TERMINATING
     *
     * Runs up to four passes through workers: (0) shutting down each
     * quietly (without waking up if parked) to quickly spread
     * notifications without unnecessary bouncing around event queues
     * etc (1) wake up and help cancel tasks (2) interrupt (3) mop up
     * races with interrupted workers
     */
    private void startTerminating() {
        cancelSubmissions();
        for (int passes = 0; passes < 4 && workerCounts != 0; ++passes) {
            advanceEventCount();
            eventWaiters = 0L; // clobber lists
            spareWaiters = 0;
            ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws = workers;
            int n = ws.length;
            for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
                ForkJoinWorkerThread w = ws[i];
                if (w != null) {
                    w.shutdown(true);
                    if (passes > 0 && !w.isTerminated()) {
                        w.cancelTasks();
                        LockSupport.unpark(w);
                        if (passes > 1) {
                            try {
                                w.interrupt();
                            } catch (SecurityException ignore) {
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }

    /**
     * Clear out and cancel submissions, ignoring exceptions
     */
    private void cancelSubmissions() {
        ForkJoinTask<?> task;
        while ((task = submissionQueue.poll()) != null) {
            try {
                task.cancel(false);
            } catch (Throwable ignore) {
            }
        }
    }

    // misc support for ForkJoinWorkerThread

    /**
     * Returns pool number
     */
    final int getPoolNumber() {
        return poolNumber;
    }

    /**
     * Tries to accumulates steal count from a worker, clearing
     * the worker's value.
     *
     * @return true if worker steal count now zero
     */
    final boolean tryAccumulateStealCount(ForkJoinWorkerThread w) {
        int sc = w.stealCount;
        long c = stealCount;
        // CAS even if zero, for fence effects
        if (UNSAFE.compareAndSwapLong(this, stealCountOffset, c, c + sc)) {
            if (sc != 0)
                w.stealCount = 0;
            return true;
        }
        return sc == 0;
    }

    /**
     * Returns the approximate (non-atomic) number of idle threads per
     * active thread.
     */
    final int idlePerActive() {
        int pc = parallelism; // use parallelism, not rc
        int ac = runState;    // no mask -- artifically boosts during shutdown
        // Use exact results for small values, saturate past 4
        return pc <= ac? 0 : pc >>> 1 <= ac? 1 : pc >>> 2 <= ac? 3 : pc >>> 3;
    }

    // Public and protected methods

    // Constructors

    /**
     * Creates a {@code ForkJoinPool} with parallelism equal to {@link
     * java.lang.Runtime#availableProcessors}, using the {@linkplain
     * #defaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory default thread factory},
     * no UncaughtExceptionHandler, and non-async LIFO processing mode.
     *
     * @throws SecurityException if a security manager exists and
     *         the caller is not permitted to modify threads
     *         because it does not hold {@link
     *         java.lang.RuntimePermission}{@code ("modifyThread")}
     */
    public ForkJoinPool() {
        this(Runtime.getRuntime().availableProcessors(),
             defaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory, null, false);
    }

    /**
     * Creates a {@code ForkJoinPool} with the indicated parallelism
     * level, the {@linkplain
     * #defaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory default thread factory},
     * no UncaughtExceptionHandler, and non-async LIFO processing mode.
     *
     * @param parallelism the parallelism level
     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if parallelism less than or
     *         equal to zero, or greater than implementation limit
     * @throws SecurityException if a security manager exists and
     *         the caller is not permitted to modify threads
     *         because it does not hold {@link
     *         java.lang.RuntimePermission}{@code ("modifyThread")}
     */
    public ForkJoinPool(int parallelism) {
        this(parallelism, defaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory, null, false);
    }

    /**
     * Creates a {@code ForkJoinPool} with the given parameters.
     *
     * @param parallelism the parallelism level. For default value,
     * use {@link java.lang.Runtime#availableProcessors}.
     * @param factory the factory for creating new threads. For default value,
     * use {@link #defaultForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory}.
     * @param handler the handler for internal worker threads that
     * terminate due to unrecoverable errors encountered while executing
     * tasks. For default value, use <code>null</code>.
     * @param asyncMode if true,
     * establishes local first-in-first-out scheduling mode for forked
     * tasks that are never joined. This mode may be more appropriate
     * than default locally stack-based mode in applications in which
     * worker threads only process event-style asynchronous tasks.
     * For default value, use <code>false</code>.
     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if parallelism less than or
     *         equal to zero, or greater than implementation limit
     * @throws NullPointerException if the factory is null
     * @throws SecurityException if a security manager exists and
     *         the caller is not permitted to modify threads
     *         because it does not hold {@link
     *         java.lang.RuntimePermission}{@code ("modifyThread")}
     */
    public ForkJoinPool(int parallelism,
                        ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory factory,
                        Thread.UncaughtExceptionHandler handler,
                        boolean asyncMode) {
        checkPermission();
        if (factory == null)
            throw new NullPointerException();
        if (parallelism <= 0 || parallelism > MAX_WORKERS)
            throw new IllegalArgumentException();
        this.parallelism = parallelism;
        this.factory = factory;
        this.ueh = handler;
        this.locallyFifo = asyncMode;
        int arraySize = initialArraySizeFor(parallelism);
        this.workers = new ForkJoinWorkerThread[arraySize];
        this.submissionQueue = new LinkedTransferQueue<ForkJoinTask<?>>();
        this.workerLock = new ReentrantLock();
        this.termination = new Phaser(1);
        this.poolNumber = poolNumberGenerator.incrementAndGet();
        this.trimTime = System.nanoTime();
    }

    /**
     * Returns initial power of two size for workers array.
     * @param pc the initial parallelism level
     */
    private static int initialArraySizeFor(int pc) {
        // See Hackers Delight, sec 3.2. We know MAX_WORKERS < (1 >>> 16)
        int size = pc < MAX_WORKERS ? pc + 1 : MAX_WORKERS;
        size |= size >>> 1;
        size |= size >>> 2;
        size |= size >>> 4;
        size |= size >>> 8;
        return size + 1;
    }

    // Execution methods

    /**
     * Common code for execute, invoke and submit
     */
    private <T> void doSubmit(ForkJoinTask<T> task) {
        if (task == null)
            throw new NullPointerException();
        if (runState >= SHUTDOWN)
            throw new RejectedExecutionException();
        submissionQueue.offer(task);
        advanceEventCount();
        helpMaintainParallelism();         // start or wake up workers
    }

    /**
     * Performs the given task, returning its result upon completion.
     *
     * @param task the task
     * @return the task's result
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public <T> T invoke(ForkJoinTask<T> task) {
        doSubmit(task);
        return task.join();
    }

    /**
     * Arranges for (asynchronous) execution of the given task.
     * If the caller is already engaged in a fork/join computation in
     * the current pool, this method is equivalent in effect to
     * {@link ForkJoinTask#fork}.
     *
     * @param task the task
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public void execute(ForkJoinTask<?> task) {
        doSubmit(task);
    }

    // AbstractExecutorService methods

    /**
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public void execute(Runnable task) {
        ForkJoinTask<?> job;
        if (task instanceof ForkJoinTask<?>) // avoid re-wrap
            job = (ForkJoinTask<?>) task;
        else
            job = ForkJoinTask.adapt(task, null);
        doSubmit(job);
    }

    /**
     * Submits a ForkJoinTask for execution.
     * If the caller is already engaged in a fork/join computation in
     * the current pool, this method is equivalent in effect to
     * {@link ForkJoinTask#fork}.
     *
     * @param task the task to submit
     * @return the task
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public <T> ForkJoinTask<T> submit(ForkJoinTask<T> task) {
        doSubmit(task);
        return task;
    }

    /**
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public <T> ForkJoinTask<T> submit(Callable<T> task) {
        ForkJoinTask<T> job = ForkJoinTask.adapt(task);
        doSubmit(job);
        return job;
    }

    /**
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public <T> ForkJoinTask<T> submit(Runnable task, T result) {
        ForkJoinTask<T> job = ForkJoinTask.adapt(task, result);
        doSubmit(job);
        return job;
    }

    /**
     * @throws NullPointerException if the task is null
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException if the task cannot be
     *         scheduled for execution
     */
    public ForkJoinTask<?> submit(Runnable task) {
        ForkJoinTask<?> job;
        if (task instanceof ForkJoinTask<?>) // avoid re-wrap
            job = (ForkJoinTask<?>) task;
        else
            job = ForkJoinTask.adapt(task, null);
        doSubmit(job);
        return job;
    }

    /**
     * @throws NullPointerException       {@inheritDoc}
     * @throws RejectedExecutionException {@inheritDoc}
     */
    public <T> List<Future<T>> invokeAll(Collection<? extends Callable<T>> tasks) {
        ArrayList<ForkJoinTask<T>> forkJoinTasks =
            new ArrayList<ForkJoinTask<T>>(tasks.size());
        for (Callable<T> task : tasks)
            forkJoinTasks.add(ForkJoinTask.adapt(task));
        invoke(new InvokeAll<T>(forkJoinTasks));

        @SuppressWarnings({"unchecked", "rawtypes"})
            List<Future<T>> futures = (List<Future<T>>) (List) forkJoinTasks;
        return futures;
    }

    static final class InvokeAll<T> extends RecursiveAction {
        final ArrayList<ForkJoinTask<T>> tasks;
        InvokeAll(ArrayList<ForkJoinTask<T>> tasks) { this.tasks = tasks; }
        public void compute() {
            try { invokeAll(tasks); }
            catch (Exception ignore) {}
        }
        private static final long serialVersionUID = -7914297376763021607L;
    }

    /**
     * Returns the factory used for constructing new workers.
     *
     * @return the factory used for constructing new workers
     */
    public ForkJoinWorkerThreadFactory getFactory() {
        return factory;
    }

    /**
     * Returns the handler for internal worker threads that terminate
     * due to unrecoverable errors encountered while executing tasks.
     *
     * @return the handler, or {@code null} if none
     */
    public Thread.UncaughtExceptionHandler getUncaughtExceptionHandler() {
        return ueh;
    }

    /**
     * Returns the targeted parallelism level of this pool.
     *
     * @return the targeted parallelism level of this pool
     */
    public int getParallelism() {
        return parallelism;
    }

    /**
     * Returns the number of worker threads that have started but not
     * yet terminated.  This result returned by this method may differ
     * from {@link #getParallelism} when threads are created to
     * maintain parallelism when others are cooperatively blocked.
     *
     * @return the number of worker threads
     */
    public int getPoolSize() {
        return workerCounts >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT;
    }

    /**
     * Returns {@code true} if this pool uses local first-in-first-out
     * scheduling mode for forked tasks that are never joined.
     *
     * @return {@code true} if this pool uses async mode
     */
    public boolean getAsyncMode() {
        return locallyFifo;
    }

    /**
     * Returns an estimate of the number of worker threads that are
     * not blocked waiting to join tasks or for other managed
     * synchronization. This method may overestimate the
     * number of running threads.
     *
     * @return the number of worker threads
     */
    public int getRunningThreadCount() {
        return workerCounts & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK;
    }

    /**
     * Returns an estimate of the number of threads that are currently
     * stealing or executing tasks. This method may overestimate the
     * number of active threads.
     *
     * @return the number of active threads
     */
    public int getActiveThreadCount() {
        return runState & ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK;
    }

    /**
     * Returns {@code true} if all worker threads are currently idle.
     * An idle worker is one that cannot obtain a task to execute
     * because none are available to steal from other threads, and
     * there are no pending submissions to the pool. This method is
     * conservative; it might not return {@code true} immediately upon
     * idleness of all threads, but will eventually become true if
     * threads remain inactive.
     *
     * @return {@code true} if all threads are currently idle
     */
    public boolean isQuiescent() {
        return (runState & ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK) == 0;
    }

    /**
     * Returns an estimate of the total number of tasks stolen from
     * one thread's work queue by another. The reported value
     * underestimates the actual total number of steals when the pool
     * is not quiescent. This value may be useful for monitoring and
     * tuning fork/join programs: in general, steal counts should be
     * high enough to keep threads busy, but low enough to avoid
     * overhead and contention across threads.
     *
     * @return the number of steals
     */
    public long getStealCount() {
        return stealCount;
    }

    /**
     * Returns an estimate of the total number of tasks currently held
     * in queues by worker threads (but not including tasks submitted
     * to the pool that have not begun executing). This value is only
     * an approximation, obtained by iterating across all threads in
     * the pool. This method may be useful for tuning task
     * granularities.
     *
     * @return the number of queued tasks
     */
    public long getQueuedTaskCount() {
        long count = 0;
        ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws = workers;
        int n = ws.length;
        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
            ForkJoinWorkerThread w = ws[i];
            if (w != null)
                count += w.getQueueSize();
        }
        return count;
    }

    /**
     * Returns an estimate of the number of tasks submitted to this
     * pool that have not yet begun executing.  This method takes time
     * proportional to the number of submissions.
     *
     * @return the number of queued submissions
     */
    public int getQueuedSubmissionCount() {
        return submissionQueue.size();
    }

    /**
     * Returns {@code true} if there are any tasks submitted to this
     * pool that have not yet begun executing.
     *
     * @return {@code true} if there are any queued submissions
     */
    public boolean hasQueuedSubmissions() {
        return !submissionQueue.isEmpty();
    }

    /**
     * Removes and returns the next unexecuted submission if one is
     * available.  This method may be useful in extensions to this
     * class that re-assign work in systems with multiple pools.
     *
     * @return the next submission, or {@code null} if none
     */
    protected ForkJoinTask<?> pollSubmission() {
        return submissionQueue.poll();
    }

    /**
     * Removes all available unexecuted submitted and forked tasks
     * from scheduling queues and adds them to the given collection,
     * without altering their execution status. These may include
     * artificially generated or wrapped tasks. This method is
     * designed to be invoked only when the pool is known to be
     * quiescent. Invocations at other times may not remove all
     * tasks. A failure encountered while attempting to add elements
     * to collection {@code c} may result in elements being in
     * neither, either or both collections when the associated
     * exception is thrown.  The behavior of this operation is
     * undefined if the specified collection is modified while the
     * operation is in progress.
     *
     * @param c the collection to transfer elements into
     * @return the number of elements transferred
     */
    protected int drainTasksTo(Collection<? super ForkJoinTask<?>> c) {
        int count = submissionQueue.drainTo(c);
        ForkJoinWorkerThread[] ws = workers;
        int n = ws.length;
        for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
            ForkJoinWorkerThread w = ws[i];
            if (w != null)
                count += w.drainTasksTo(c);
        }
        return count;
    }

    /**
     * Returns a string identifying this pool, as well as its state,
     * including indications of run state, parallelism level, and
     * worker and task counts.
     *
     * @return a string identifying this pool, as well as its state
     */
    public String toString() {
        long st = getStealCount();
        long qt = getQueuedTaskCount();
        long qs = getQueuedSubmissionCount();
        int wc = workerCounts;
        int tc = wc >>> TOTAL_COUNT_SHIFT;
        int rc = wc & RUNNING_COUNT_MASK;
        int pc = parallelism;
        int rs = runState;
        int ac = rs & ACTIVE_COUNT_MASK;
        return super.toString() +
            "[" + runLevelToString(rs) +
            ", parallelism = " + pc +
            ", size = " + tc +
            ", active = " + ac +
            ", running = " + rc +
            ", steals = " + st +
            ", tasks = " + qt +
            ", submissions = " + qs +
            "]";
    }

    private static String runLevelToString(int s) {
        return ((s & TERMINATED) != 0 ? "Terminated" :
                ((s & TERMINATING) != 0 ? "Terminating" :
                 ((s & SHUTDOWN) != 0 ? "Shutting down" :
                  "Running")));
    }

    /**
     * Initiates an orderly shutdown in which previously submitted
     * tasks are executed, but no new tasks will be accepted.
     * Invocation has no additional effect if already shut down.
     * Tasks that are in the process of being submitted concurrently
     * during the course of this method may or may not be rejected.
     *
     * @throws SecurityException if a security manager exists and
     *         the caller is not permitted to modify threads
     *         because it does not hold {@link
     *         java.lang.RuntimePermission}{@code ("modifyThread")}
     */
    public void shutdown() {
        checkPermission();
        advanceRunLevel(SHUTDOWN);
        tryTerminate(false);
    }

    /**
     * Attempts to cancel and/or stop all tasks, and reject all
     * subsequently submitted tasks.  Tasks that are in the process of
     * being submitted or executed concurrently during the course of
     * this method may or may not be rejected. This method cancels
     * both existing and unexecuted tasks, in order to permit
     * termination in the presence of task dependencies. So the method
     * always returns an empty list (unlike the case for some other
     * Executors).
     *
     * @return an empty list
     * @throws SecurityException if a security manager exists and
     *         the caller is not permitted to modify threads
     *         because it does not hold {@link
     *         java.lang.RuntimePermission}{@code ("modifyThread")}
     */
    public List<Runnable> shutdownNow() {
        checkPermission();
        tryTerminate(true);
        return Collections.emptyList();
    }

    /**
     * Returns {@code true} if all tasks have completed following shut down.
     *
     * @return {@code true} if all tasks have completed following shut down
     */
    public boolean isTerminated() {
        return runState >= TERMINATED;
    }

    /**
     * Returns {@code true} if the process of termination has
     * commenced but not yet completed.  This method may be useful for
     * debugging. A return of {@code true} reported a sufficient
     * period after shutdown may indicate that submitted tasks have
     * ignored or suppressed interruption, causing this executor not
     * to properly terminate.
     *
     * @return {@code true} if terminating but not yet terminated
     */
    public boolean isTerminating() {
        return (runState & (TERMINATING|TERMINATED)) == TERMINATING;
    }

    /**
     * Returns {@code true} if this pool has been shut down.
     *
     * @return {@code true} if this pool has been shut down
     */
    public boolean isShutdown() {
        return runState >= SHUTDOWN;
    }

    /**
     * Blocks until all tasks have completed execution after a shutdown
     * request, or the timeout occurs, or the current thread is
     * interrupted, whichever happens first.
     *
     * @param timeout the maximum time to wait
     * @param unit the time unit of the timeout argument
     * @return {@code true} if this executor terminated and
     *         {@code false} if the timeout elapsed before termination
     * @throws InterruptedException if interrupted while waiting
     */
    public boolean awaitTermination(long timeout, TimeUnit unit)
        throws InterruptedException {
        try {
            return termination.awaitAdvanceInterruptibly(0, timeout, unit) > 0;
        } catch(TimeoutException ex) {
            return false;
        }
    }

    /**
     * Interface for extending managed parallelism for tasks running
     * in {@link ForkJoinPool}s.
     *
     * <p>A {@code ManagedBlocker} provides two methods.  Method
     * {@code isReleasable} must return {@code true} if blocking is
     * not necessary. Method {@code block} blocks the current thread
     * if necessary (perhaps internally invoking {@code isReleasable}
     * before actually blocking). The unusual methods in this API
     * accommodate synchronizers that may, but don't usually, block
     * for long periods. Similarly, they allow more efficient internal
     * handling of cases in which additional workers may be, but
     * usually are not, needed to ensure sufficient parallelism.
     * Toward this end, implementations of method {@code isReleasable}
     * must be amenable to repeated invocation.
     *
     * <p>For example, here is a ManagedBlocker based on a
     * ReentrantLock:
     *  <pre> {@code
     * class ManagedLocker implements ManagedBlocker {
     *   final ReentrantLock lock;
     *   boolean hasLock = false;
     *   ManagedLocker(ReentrantLock lock) { this.lock = lock; }
     *   public boolean block() {
     *     if (!hasLock)
     *       lock.lock();
     *     return true;
     *   }
     *   public boolean isReleasable() {
     *     return hasLock || (hasLock = lock.tryLock());
     *   }
     * }}</pre>
     *
     * <p>Here is a class that possibly blocks waiting for an
     * item on a given queue:
     *  <pre> {@code
     * class QueueTaker<E> implements ManagedBlocker {
     *   final BlockingQueue<E> queue;
     *   volatile E item = null;
     *   QueueTaker(BlockingQueue<E> q) { this.queue = q; }
     *   public boolean block() throws InterruptedException {
     *     if (item == null)
     *       item = queue.take
     *     return true;
     *   }
     *   public boolean isReleasable() {
     *     return item != null || (item = queue.poll) != null;
     *   }
     *   public E getItem() { // call after pool.managedBlock completes
     *     return item;
     *   }
     * }}</pre>
     */
    public static interface ManagedBlocker {
        /**
         * Possibly blocks the current thread, for example waiting for
         * a lock or condition.
         *
         * @return {@code true} if no additional blocking is necessary
         * (i.e., if isReleasable would return true)
         * @throws InterruptedException if interrupted while waiting
         * (the method is not required to do so, but is allowed to)
         */
        boolean block() throws InterruptedException;

        /**
         * Returns {@code true} if blocking is unnecessary.
         */
        boolean isReleasable();
    }

    /**
     * Blocks in accord with the given blocker.  If the current thread
     * is a {@link ForkJoinWorkerThread}, this method possibly
     * arranges for a spare thread to be activated if necessary to
     * ensure sufficient parallelism while the current thread is blocked.
     *
     * <p>If the caller is not a {@link ForkJoinTask}, this method is
     * behaviorally equivalent to
     *  <pre> {@code
     * while (!blocker.isReleasable())
     *   if (blocker.block())
     *     return;
     * }</pre>
     *
     * If the caller is a {@code ForkJoinTask}, then the pool may
     * first be expanded to ensure parallelism, and later adjusted.
     *
     * @param blocker the blocker
     * @throws InterruptedException if blocker.block did so
     */
    public static void managedBlock(ManagedBlocker blocker)
        throws InterruptedException {
        Thread t = Thread.currentThread();
        if (t instanceof ForkJoinWorkerThread) {
            ForkJoinWorkerThread w = (ForkJoinWorkerThread) t;
            w.pool.awaitBlocker(blocker);
        }
        else {
            do {} while (!blocker.isReleasable() && !blocker.block());
        }
    }

    // AbstractExecutorService overrides.  These rely on undocumented
    // fact that ForkJoinTask.adapt returns ForkJoinTasks that also
    // implement RunnableFuture.

    protected <T> RunnableFuture<T> newTaskFor(Runnable runnable, T value) {
        return (RunnableFuture<T>) ForkJoinTask.adapt(runnable, value);
    }

    protected <T> RunnableFuture<T> newTaskFor(Callable<T> callable) {
        return (RunnableFuture<T>) ForkJoinTask.adapt(callable);
    }

    // Unsafe mechanics

    private static final sun.misc.Unsafe UNSAFE = sun.misc.Unsafe.getUnsafe();
    private static final long workerCountsOffset =
        objectFieldOffset("workerCounts", ForkJoinPool.class);
    private static final long runStateOffset =
        objectFieldOffset("runState", ForkJoinPool.class);
    private static final long eventCountOffset =
        objectFieldOffset("eventCount", ForkJoinPool.class);
    private static final long eventWaitersOffset =
        objectFieldOffset("eventWaiters",ForkJoinPool.class);
    private static final long stealCountOffset =
        objectFieldOffset("stealCount",ForkJoinPool.class);
    private static final long spareWaitersOffset =
        objectFieldOffset("spareWaiters",ForkJoinPool.class);

    private static long objectFieldOffset(String field, Class<?> klazz) {
        try {
            return UNSAFE.objectFieldOffset(klazz.getDeclaredField(field));
        } catch (NoSuchFieldException e) {
            // Convert Exception to corresponding Error
            NoSuchFieldError error = new NoSuchFieldError(field);
            error.initCause(e);
            throw error;
        }
    }
}
Revision:	1.21
Committed:	Fri Aug 13 16:21:45 2010 UTC (13 years, 9 months ago) by dl
Branch:	MAIN
Changes since 1.20:	+0 -3 lines
Log Message:	Remove outdated javadoc sentence